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Although there are many theories of development, we’ll be focusing on these three major theories- Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory, and Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.
Let’s review Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. The first stage is the oral stage. This is from birth to about a year old. Freud believes the erogenous zone during this stage was the mouth. Infants in this range explore their new world by sucking and putting things in their mouth. Infants often find comfort through oral stimulation, like sucking on a pacifier. The conflict in this stage is seen as the weaning process. Infants are expected to go from being completely dependent on their caretaker to being less dependent. Failure at this stage could result in an oral fixation like problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or even nail biting.
The second stage is the anal stage. This is from one year to three years old with the erogenous zone being the bowels and bladder control. The conflict in this stage is toilet training. Freud believed that success in this stage in not just the task of toilet training but the way the caregiver approaches the toilet training process. He believed parents that offered praise and rewards had children that felt capable, while parents that shamed or punished their child for accidents had children that did not successfully complete this stage. Failure at this stage could result in anal-retentive personalities in adults.
The third stage is from ages three to six and called the phallic stage. The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. Children at this age are learning the differences between the sexes. Freud’s Oedipus complex and Electra complex are in this stage- where a child wants to possess the opposite-sex parent and wants to replace the same-sex parent. He also believed that females experience penis envy, which he believed was never fully resolved, meaning women are fixated at this stage to some degree.
The fourth stage is the latent stage, which incorporates ages six to puberty. Freud believed that sexual feeling was inactive during this stage. He believed children explore the world and develop relationships with peers at this point. Since this stage focuses on social interactions, Freud believed that failure in this stage may result in the inability to form a positive relationship in adulthood.
The final stage is the genital stage, which Freud noted as starting at puberty and ending at death. Freud believed puberty triggers the libido to become active. Through this stage is when he said adolescents are interested in their sexual behavior with others. Freud also stressed the balance of life’s responsibilities during this stage.
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development include eight different stages that a person goes through. Each stage includes a core struggle that impacts later potential problems.
The first stage is trust vs mistrust, ages birth - 2 years. This stage is when an infant is learning to develop a sense of trust in themselves, others, and the environment. If an infant does not learn trust, they may be suspiciousness or a general sense of mistrust in human relationships.
The second stage is autonomy vs doubt, ages 2 - 4 years. This time period is for the child to start developing autonomy. Failure to master self-control tasks may lead to shame and doubt in oneself or their own ability.
The third stage is initiative vs guilt, ages 5 - 6 years. This is a time when children start to establish a sense of competence and initiative. If kids are not allowed to make decisions, it may lead to guilt.
The fourth stage is industry vs inferiority, age 5 - 12 years. This stage is focused on a child achieving a sense of industry. If they fail to master this task, it may result in a sense of inadequacy.
Identity vs role confusion is the fifth stage, ages 13- 19 years. This time period is for a teen to form a personal identity- self-identity, gender roles, life goals, and life’s meaning.
The sixth stage is intimacy vs isolation, ages 20 - 40 years. This stage’s challenge is about achieving intimacy and close relationships.
The seventh stage is generativity vs self-absorption/stagnation, ages 35-55 years. Adults in this age range become more aware of their own eventual death. This stage incorporates a reflection and reevaluation of life- if one is living well or carrying out their hopes and dreams.
The last stage is integrity vs despair, ages 65+. Ego integrity is achieved by those who don’t have many regrets when reflecting about their life or those that believe they lead a productive life. Challenges in this stage include coping to losses, death of others, and adjusting to retirement.
Piaget was focused on learning about the ways children’s thinking changes, thus creating a cognitive development model.
His first stage is the sensorimotor stage, birth to two years old. This is when babies experience the world through their senses- touching, sucking, seeing, hearing, grasping.
The second stage is the preoperational stage, 2 - 6 years of age. This is a stage when kids’ represent things with words and images. They tend to use intuitive reasoning rather than logical reasoning.
The third stage is concrete operational, including ages 7 - 11 years. Kids begin to think more logically about concrete events and can understand concrete analogies.
The final stage is formal operational, ages 12 - adulthood. Piaget believed this is when abstract reasoning and moral reasoning happen.
We’ve covered the three main developmental theories. Key points to remember are that all of our early life experiences impact who we become. Remember that there are many different theories of development that psychology uses to assess the lifespan.
We love you guys! Go out and be your best self today! And as always, Happy Nursing!
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